Alcohols, C9-11-branched and linear

Short-term toxicity to fish

Link to relevant study record(s)

Reference

Reference 1

Endpoint:

short-term toxicity to fish

Type of information:

experimental study

Adequacy of study:

key study

Study period:

1979

Reliability:

2 (reliable with restrictions)

Rationale for reliability incl. deficiencies:

other: The study was conducted according to an appropriate in house method but full details are not available. This study was not conducted according to GLP and no analytical monitoring was carried out.

Qualifier:

equivalent or similar to guideline

Guideline:

OECD Guideline 203 (Fish, Acute Toxicity Test)

Deviations:

not applicable

GLP compliance:

not specified

Analytical monitoring:

not specified

Vehicle:

yes

Details on test solutions:

PREPARATION AND APPLICATION OF TEST SOLUTION (especially for difficult test substances)

- Method: Quantities of a 100 mg/l solution of Dobanol 91 in acetone had previously been added to the water to give a series of approximately logarithmically graded concentrations.

- Chemical name of vehicle (organic solvent, emulsifier or dispersant): acetone

- Concentration of vehicle in test medium (stock solution and final test solution(s) including control(s)): 160 mg/L

- Evidence of undissolved material (e.g. precipitate, surface film, etc): not reported

Test organisms (species):

Oncorhynchus mykiss (previous name: Salmo gairdneri)

Test type:

static

Water media type:

freshwater

Limit test:

no

Total exposure duration:

96 h

Test temperature:

15 degC

pH:

range: 8.1-8.2

Dissolved oxygen:

>7 mg/L

Nominal and measured concentrations:

Nominal concentrations: 0, 2.5, 4, 6.3, 10 and 16 mg/L

Details on test conditions:

TEST SYSTEM

- Test vessel: aquaria

- Material, size, headspace, fill volume: glass filled with 10 L dilution water

- Aeration: yes

- No. of organisms per vessel: 5

- No. of vessels per concentration (replicates): 1


- No. of vessels per vehicle control (replicates): 1


TEST MEDIUM / WATER PARAMETERS

- Source/preparation of dilution water: dechlorinated tap water

- Culture medium different from test medium: not reported

- Intervals of water quality measurement: not reported


OTHER TEST CONDITIONS

- Adjustment of pH: not reported

- Photoperiod: not reported

- Light intensity: not reported


EFFECT PARAMETERS MEASURED (with observation intervals if applicable) : mortality, recorded daily

TEST CONCENTRATIONS

- Spacing factor for test concentrations: 1.6

- Range finding study: not reported

Reference substance (positive control):

no

Key result

Duration:

96 h

Dose descriptor:

LC50

Effect conc.:

6.3 - 10 mg/L

Nominal / measured:

nominal

Conc. based on:

test mat.

Basis for effect:

mortality (fish)

Reported statistics and error estimates:

No statistical analysis is reported.

Sublethal observations / clinical signs:

Table 1. Summary of findings.

Nominal concentrations (mg/L)	Solvent concentration (mg/L)	# 5/aquarium	Mortality (%) at 96 h
0	160	5	0
2.5	160	5	0
4	160	5	0
6.3	160	5	0
10	160	5	5
16	160	5	5

The steepness of the dose-response curve only allows for a range LC50 to be determined.

Validity criteria fulfilled:

yes

Conclusions:

A reliable 96 h LC50 value of 6.3-10 mg/L has been determined for the toxicity of DOBANOL 91 with the freshwater fish O. mykiss.

Reference 2

Endpoint:

short-term toxicity to fish

Type of information:

experimental study

Adequacy of study:

supporting study

Study period:

1991-06-21 to 1991-06-25

Reliability:

2 (reliable with restrictions)

Rationale for reliability incl. deficiencies:

other: The study was conducted according to an appropriate national standard method but full details are not available and no analytical monitoring was carried out.

Qualifier:

according to guideline

Guideline:

other: issued by Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Burnham-on-Crouch, UK

Deviations:

not specified

GLP compliance:

yes

Analytical monitoring:

no

Vehicle:

yes

Details on test solutions:

PREPARATION AND APPLICATION OF TEST SOLUTION

- Method: A preliminary solution in 1% Tween 80-acetone and dispersion aided by shielded propeller-stirrers.

- Controls: solvent control and dilution water control

- Chemical name of vehicle (organic solvent, emulsifier or dispersant): Tween 80-acetone

Test organisms (species):

other: Scophthalmus maximus (also known as Psetta maxima)

Details on test organisms:

TEST ORGANISM

- Common name: juvenile turbot

- Source: Golden Sea Produce Ltd, Hunterston, Scotland

- Length at study initiation (mean and SD): 4.7 cm (SD 0.3)

- Weight at study initiation (mean SD): 3.17 g (SD 0.63)


ACCLIMATION

- Acclimation period: 11-21 June 1991

- Acclimation conditions (same as test or not): 14 degC +/- 1 degC, DO >= 7.9 mg O2/L

- Type and amount of food: commercial pellets

- Health during acclimation (any mortality observed): 0.5% in 4 days prior to study

Test type:

semi-static

Water media type:

freshwater

Limit test:

no

Total exposure duration:

96 h

Hardness:

Not reported

Test temperature:

14 degC

pH:

8.2

Dissolved oxygen:

range: 7.8-8.0 mg O2/L

Salinity:

32%o - dilution water

Nominal and measured concentrations:

Nominal conc.: 0, 0.56, 1.0, 1.8, 3.2, 5.6 and 10 mg/L

Details on test conditions:

TEST SYSTEM

- Test vessel:

- Material, size, headspace, fill volume: glass aquaria with 20 L test medium

- Renewal rate of test solution (frequency): daily

- No. of organisms per vessel: 10

- No. of vessels per concentration (replicates): 1

- No. of vessels per control (replicates): 1

- No. of vessels per vehicle control (replicates): 1

- Biomass loading rate: 1.59 g bodyweight/L


TEST MEDIUM / WATER PARAMETERS

- Source/preparation of dilution water: Synthetic sea water (Synthetica) at 32%o and aerated for >12 h prior to use.


- Intervals of water quality measurement: every 24 h temperature, pH and DO were measured.


OTHER TEST CONDITIONS

- Photoperiod: 16h light, 8h dark.


EFFECT PARAMETERS MEASURED: mortality and abnormalities were measured at 3, 6, 24, 48 and 72 h.


TEST CONCENTRATIONS

- Spacing factor for test concentrations: 1.8-2

Reference substance (positive control):

no

Key result

Duration:

96 h

Dose descriptor:

LC50

Effect conc.:

5.8 mg/L

Nominal / measured:

nominal

Conc. based on:

test mat.

Basis for effect:

mortality (fish)

Remarks on result:

other: 5.4-6.3 mg/L 95% CL

Details on results:

- Behavioural abnormalities: lethargy was observed at 3.2 (10/10 fish from 6 h) and 5.6 mg/L (10/10 fish from 6 h, and rest of surviving fish from 48 h)

- Mortality of control: 0%

- Effect concentrations exceeding solubility of substance in test medium: test substance solubility is 43.9 mg/L at a loading rate of 1000 mg/L (estimate; Fisk et al, 2005), the substance was dissolved with the aid of a vehicle achieving a maximum treatment exposure of 10 mg/L.

Reported statistics and error estimates:

The data were analysed by the methods described in the Statistics Unit Operating Procedure P3, no further details are reported.

Validity criteria fulfilled:

not specified

Conclusions:

A 96h LC50 value to 5.8 mg/L has been determined for the effects of the Dobanol 91 on mortality of the marine fish S. maximus.

Description of key information

C9 -11:

Short-term toxicity to fish:

96 -h LC₅₀ 6.3 -10 mg/L (nominal) conducted with a method equivalent to OECD TG 203 (Oncorhynchus mykiss, freshwater);

96 -h LC₅₀ 5.8 mg/L (nominal) guideline issued by Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Burnham-on-Crouch, UK (Scophthalmus maximus, marine)

Both read-across from Alcohols C9-11.

Key value for chemical safety assessment

Fresh water fish

Fresh water fish

Effect concentration:

6.3 mg/L

Marine water fish

Marine water fish

Effect concentration:

5.8 mg/L

Additional information

Short-term aquatic toxicity whole substance data are not available with Alcohols C9-11 branched and linear (CAS 85711-26-8). Data are available with closely related substance Alcohols C9-11 linear only (CAS 66455-17-2).

The presence of branched structures does not appear to confer aliphatic alcohols any different environmental properties compared to the linears only substances, therefore the data is freely read-across between Alcohols C9-11 branched and linear and Alcohols C9-11 linear only substances.

The relevant values are:

C9-11:

A reliable 96-hour LC₅₀ value of 6.3-10 mg/L has been determined for the toxicity of Alcohols, C9-11 (CAS 66455-17-2) to the freshwater fish Oncorhynchus mykiss (Shell Toxicology Laboratory, 1979). The LC₅₀ is reported as a range due to the steepness of the dose response curve.

A 96-hour LC₅₀ value to 5.8 mg/L has been determined for the effects of Alcohols, C9-11 (CAS 66455-17-2) on mortality of the marine fish Scophthalmus maximus. (Huntingdon Life Sciences Ltd, 1991d)

No other test data are available.

Data are also available for each constituent of Alcohols C9-11. The relevant values are:

C9:

A reliable 96-hour LC₅₀ value of 5.7 mg/l has been determined for the effects of nonan-1-ol (C9, CAS 143-08-8) on mortality of the fish Pimephales promelas based on measured concentrations, in accordance with test guideline OECD 203 (Broderius and Kahl, 1985). This study represents the lowest reliable experimental value available for this endpoint on nonan-1-ol.

These results are supported by consistent values in other reliable short-term toxicity to fish tests:

96-hour LC₅₀ 18 mg/l for the effects of nonan-1-ol (C9, CAS 143-08-8) on mortality of Oncorhynchus mykiss (Bengtsson et al., 1984).

96-hour LC₅₀ 5.7 mg/l for the effects of nonan-1-ol (C9, CAS 143-08-8) on mortality of Pimephales promelas (Brooke et al., 1984).

C10:

Several values for short-term toxicity to fish are available in literature and consistently indicate an LC₅₀ in the range 1 -10 mg/l in freshwater fish species. The result of highest reliability is a recent fish embryo toxicity test: A 120 h LC₅₀ value of 3.4 mg/l (mean measured concentration) was determined for the effects of the test substance on mortality of Pimephales promelas embryos, supported by analytical monitoring and conducted in accordance with GLP (Wildlife International, 2015).

 

A 96-hour LC₅₀ value of 2.4 mg/l was determined for the effects of the test substance on mortality of Pimephales promelas (Veith et al., 1983, Brooke et al., 1984). This study reflects the lowest reliable experimental value that is available for this endpoint within the data set.

 

These results are supported by values ranging from 0.6 -8.4 mg/l from values in several freshwater fish species and are also consistent with QSAR predictions.

C11:

A reliable 96-hour LC₅₀ value of 1.04 mg/l has been determined for the effects of undecan-1-ol (CAS 112-42-5) on mortality of the fish Pimephales promelas in accordance with test guideline US EPA 1975 (Veith et al, 1983). This study represents the lowest reliable experimental value available for this endpoint on undecan-1-ol.

A second reliable short-term toxicity to fish test has determined an LC₅₀ of 4.6 mg/l for the effects of undecan-1-ol on mortality of the fish Oncorhynchus mykiss in accordance with test guideline OECD 203 (Bengtsson et al, 1984).

An estimated LC₅₀ value has been calculated to be 1.7 mg/l (Fisk et al, 2009).

Discussion of trends in the Category of C6-24 linear and essentially-linear aliphatic alcohols:

Linear LCAAs

The data summarised in the table below show that the toxicity of the single carbon number chain length LCAAs increases from an LC₅₀ of 97 mg/L for C6 to 1.0 mg/L for C12. At higher carbon number chain lengths there is an absence of short-term toxicity (LC₅₀ values are reported as being greater than the highest test concentration or higher than the water solubility of the test substance) and this is explained by the water solubility of an LCAA limiting its bioavailability, such that a toxic concentration for short-term exposure is not achieved.

The results of a 7-day, semi-static toxicity test with 1-octanol using Pimephales promelas larvae aged 1, 4 and 7 days at the start of the study have also been reported by (Pickering et al., 1996) but are not included in the table. NOECs based on nominal concentrations were 1.5-11.9 mg/L for survival. Measured concentrations in the test were reduced to non-detectable levels in most test vessels in the old media. The poor maintenance of exposure concentrations means that the reported NOEC values are almost certainly underestimates of the true toxicity of the substance. The results of this test are also discussed later with respect to long-term toxicity.

The lowest reliable LC₅₀ values determined in tests with single carbon chain length LCAAs are shown in the following table. 

Table: Key fish short-term toxicity studies on single carbon chain length linear LCAAs.

CAS	Chemical Name	Comments	Water solubility (mg/L)	Species	Method/ Guideline	Exposure regime	Endpoint	Value (mg/L)^1,2	Reliability code	Reference
111-27-3	1-Hexanol		5900 at 20°C	Pimephales promelas	US EPA 1975	Flow-through	96 h LC50	97 (m)	2	Veith, Call and Brooke, 1983a,b
111-70-6	1-Heptanol	Supporting	1300 at 20°C	Pimephales promelas	ASTM 1980	Flow-through	96 h LC50	38 (m)	2	Broderius and Kahl, 1985
111-87-5	1-Octanol		550 at 25°C	Pimephales promelas	ASTM 1980	Flow-through	96 h LC50	13 (m)	2	Veith, Call and Brooke, 1983a,b; University of Wisconsin-Superior., 1984; Broderius and Kahl, 1985
143-08-8	1-Nonanol		130 at 20 °C	Pimephales promelas	ASTM 1980	Flow-through	96 h LC50	5.5 (m)	2	Broderius and Kahl, 1985
112-30-1	1-Decanol		40	Pimephales promelas (embryo)	OECD TG 236	Flow-through	120 h LC50	3.4 (m)	1	Wildlife International, 2015b
112-30-1	1-Decanol		40	Pimephales promelas	US EPA 1975	Flow-through	96 h LC50	2.3 (m)	2	Veith, Call and Brooke, 1983a,b; Brooke et al., 1984
112-42-5	1-Undecanol		8.0 at 20°C	Pimephales promelas	US EPA 1975	Flow-through	96 h LC50	1.0 (m)	2	Veith, Call and Brooke, 1983a,b
112-53-8	1-Dodecanol		1.9 at 20°C	Pimephales promelas	US EPA 1975	Flow-through	96 h LC50	1.0 (m)	2	Veith, Call and Brooke, 1983a,b
112-70-9	1-Tridecanol	Supporting	0.38 at 20°C	Pimephales promelas	US EPA 1975	Flow-through	96 h LC50	>0.33 (m)	2	Veith, Call and Brooke, 1983a,b
112-72-1	1-Tetradecanol		0.19 at 25°C	Salmo gairdneri^3	OECD 203	Semi-static	96 h LC50	>1 (n) (>LoS)	2	SafePharm, 1996b
36653-82-4	1-Hexadecanol		0.024 at 25°C	Salmo gairdneri^3	OECD 203	Semi-static	96 h LC50	>0.4 (n) (>LoS)	2	SafePharm, 1996c
112-92-5	1-Octadecanol		0.0011 at 25°C	Salmo gairdneri^3	OECD 203	Semi-static	96 h LC50	>0.4 (n) (>LoS)	2	SafePharm, 1996d
661-19-8	1-Docosanol		approx. 0.001 (estimate)	Oncorhynchus mykiss	OECD 203	Semi-static	96 h LC50	>1000 (n) (>LoS)	2	SafePharm, 2000

Notes:

1 >LoS: concentration/Loading rate greater than the limit of water solubility

2 (n) based on nominal concentrations, (m) based on measured concentrations.

3 Now known as Oncorhynchus mykiss. The names used in the study reports are given here.

 

Multi-constituent LCAAs

The data for multi-constituent substances of different carbon chain length LCAAs (commercial products) are shown in the table below. The results show that substances containing LCAAs with carbon numbers in the ranges of C8-10 and C6-12 exert short-term toxic effects at concentrations of between 0.7 and 10 mg/L. At these concentrations, all the constituents are likely to have been fully dissolved.

In contrast, multi-constituent substances - Alcohols, C12-13; Alcohols, C12-13-branched and linear and Alcohols, C12-15-branched and linear - exhibited effects at loading rates where not all constituents were fully dissolved. Under such circumstances the presence of retained undissolved test material, such as occurred in the Shell Toxicology Laboratory (1978a) test, opens up the possibility for physical fouling of the test organism and this needs to be kept in mind when interpreting the result. The multi-constituent substances containing LCAAs with carbon chain length C12 and above did not exhibit short-term toxicity effects at loading rates where the solubility of the constituent LCAAs was exceeded.

The data for nonanol, branched and linear, decanol branched and linear, decanol branched and undecanol branched alcohols, have been read-across from their linear alcohols counterparts (C9, C10 and C11) since they are essentially linear alcohols.

Alcohols, C14-15 ecotoxicity assessment is based on weight of evidence from two studies; Shell Internationale Chemie (1973) and Shell Toxicology Lab (1978a). Both studies report the LC₅₀ to be above the limit of solubility. The Shell Internationale Chemie (1973) study tested the toxicity of the substance via the WAF preparation method (the preferred method of testing with poorly soluble mixtures) however it does not report complete information on the study methods and conditions. The Shell Toxicology Lab (1978a) did not utilise WAF methods but it is reported more comprehensively.

The results for both single carbon number LCAAs and the multi-constituent substances indicate that, for fish, there is a short-term toxicity cut-off for LCAAs with carbon numbers >C14.

The lowest reliable LC₅₀ values determined in tests with multiconstituent carbon chain length LCAAs are shown in the following table.  

Table: Fish short-term toxicity studies on mixed carbon chain length LCAAs.

CAS #	Chemical name	Comments^1	Water solubility (mg/L)	Species	Method/ Guideline^2	Exposure regime	Endpoint	Value (mg/L)^3	Reliability code	Reference
n/a	Alcohols, C7-9	SUPPORTING	510 at a loading rate of 1000 mg/L (estimated)	I. idus^4	Not specified	Static	96 h LC50	0.7-0.8 (n)	4 (disregarded)	Shell, 1978
67762-41-8	Alcohols, C8-10	Type C SUPPORTING	2.4 at 25°C	Salmo gairdneri^4 and Lepomis macrochirus	EPA 1975	Static	96 h LC50	6.5-10 (n)	2	EG&G Bionomics, 1975
66455-17-2	Alcohols, C9-11	SUPPORTING	44 at a loading rate of 1000 mg/L. (estimated)	S. gairdneri^4	Not specified	Static	96 h LC50	6.3-10 (n)	2	Shell Toxicology Laboratory, 1979
66455-17-2	Alcohols, C9-11	SUPPORTING	44 at a loading rate of 1000 mg/L. (estimated)	Scopthalmus maximus (marine species)	Not specified	Semi-static	96 h LC50	5.8 (n)	2	Huntingdon Life Sciences Ltd., 1991d
68515-81-1	Nonanol, branched and linear		121 (estimated)	Pimephales promelas	ASTM 1980	Flow-through	96 h LC50	5.5 (m)   (r-a from C9)	2	Broderius and Kahl, 1985
90342-32-8	Decanol, branched and linear		26.17 at 20°C	P. promelas	US EPA 1975	Flow-through	96 h LC50	2.3 (m)   (r-a from C10)	2	Veith, Call and Brooke, 1983a,b; University of Wisconsin-Superior, 1984
128973-77-3	Undecanol, branched and linear. Reaction mass of 2-methyldecan-1-ol and 2-propyloctan-1-ol and 2-ethylnonan-1-ol and 2-butylheptan-1-ol		6.3 at 25°C	P. promelas	US EPA 1975	Flow-through	96 h LC50	1.0 (m) (r-a from C11)	2	Veith, Call and Brooke, 1983a,b
75782-86-4	Alcohols, C12-13		2.4 at 25^oC	S. gairdneri^4	Not specified	Static	96 h LC50	4.0-10 (>LoS)	2	Shell Toxicology Laboratory, 1978a
75782-86-4	Alcohols, C12-13		2.4 at 25^oC	S. maximus (marine species)	Not specified	Semi-static	96 h LC50	10 (n) (>LoS)	2	Huntingdon Life Sciences Ltd., 1991c
740817-83-8	Alcohols, C12-13-branched and linear		2.9-3.1 at 20°C	Brachydanio rerio	OECD 203 WAF	Semi-static	96-hr LL50	15 (n) (>LoS)	1	TNO, 2000a
90604-40-3	Alcohols, C12-15-branched and linear		0.80 at 20°C	Oncorhynchus mykiss	OECD 203 WAF	Semi-Static	96 h LL50	100-300 (n) (>LoS)	1	Shell Global Solutions, 2000
68855-56-1	Alcohols, C 12-16	Type B SUPPORTING	0.80 at 20°C	O. mykiss	Not specified	Static	96 h LC50	57 (n) (>LoS)	2	Huntingdon Life Sciences 1996i
80206-82-2	Alcohols, C 12-14	not possible to determine compositional type SUPPORTING	approx. 4 predicted at 1000 mg/L loading rate	L. idus	OECD 203	Static	48 h LC50	>5000 (n) (>LoS)	2	Henkel, 1999m
75782-87-5	Alcohols, C14-15		0.7 at 20°C and 0.15 at a loading rate of 1000 mg/L. (estimated)	S. gairdneri4	Not specified	Static	96 h LL50	>500 (n) (>LoS)	2	Shell Toxicology Lab 1978b
75782-87-5	Alcohols, C14-15		0.7 at 20°C and 0.15 at a loading rate of 1000 mg/L. (estimated)	Carassius auratus	Not specified	Static	96 h LL50	>0.7 (n) (>LoS)	2	Shell Internationale Chemie, 1973
68002-94-8	Alcohols, C 16-18 and 18 Unsaturated	SUPPORTING	0.0404 predicted at 1000 mg/L loading rate	L. idus	OECD 203	Static	48 h LC50	>10000 (>LoS)	4	Henkel, 1999o

Notes:

1 Compositional Types are described in section 1.5 of the ecotoxicity category report.

2 WAF denotes test medium was a water-accommodated fraction      

3 >LoS: LC₅₀ observed was greater than the limit of solubility of at least some constituents of the substance. (n) based on nominal concentrations, (m) based on measured concentrations.

4 Now known as Oncorhynchus mykiss. The names used in the study reports are given here.

References:

Broderius, S. and Kahl, M., 1985. Acute toxicity of organic chemical mixtures to the fathead minnow. Aquatic Toxicology 6:307-322.

 

E.G.& G. Bionomics, 1975. Acute toxicity of two Conoco compounds to bluegill (lepomis macrochirus) and rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Bioassay report submitted to Conoco Chemicals, Ponca City, Oklahoma.

 

Henkel KGaA, 1999m. Biological research and Product Safety/Ecology: Unpublished results; test substance registration No. 6801.

 

Henkel KGaA, 1999o. Biological Research and Product safety/Ecology: unpublished results, test substance registration no. 6802.

 

Huntingdon Life Sciences Ltd. (HLS), 1991d. Report No. SLL 207(d)/911034.

 

Huntingdon Life Sciences Ltd. (HLS), 1991c. Report No. SLL 207(c)/911033.

 

Huntingdon Life Sciences Ltd. (HLS), 1996i. Report No. 96/KAS231/0417.

 

SafePharm Laboratories, 1996b. SafePharm Laboratories SPL Project Number 140/599.

 

SafePharm Laboratories, 1996c. SafePharm Laboratories SPL Project Number 140/500.

 

SafePharm Laboratories, 1996d. SafePharm Laboratories SPL Project Number 140/506.

 

SafePharm Laboratories, 2000. SafePharm Laboratories SPL Project Number 140/1001.

 

Shell, 1978. The acute toxicity of Linevol 79 to the golden orfe (idus idus melanotus), Shell Group Research Report, TLGR.0024.78.

 

Shell Global Solutions, 2000. Shell Global Solutions Report CT.99.47088.

 

Shell Internationale Chemie, 1973. Determination of acute toxicity to fish of Shell chemicals. I. AMGR.0095.73. Shell Toxicology Laboratory, 1978a. GRR-TLGR.0161.78.

 

Shell Toxicology Laboratory, 1978b. GRR-TLGR.0162.78.

 

Shell Toxicology Laboratory, 1979. GRR-TLGR.0166.78.

 

TNO Nutrition and Food Research Institute, 2000a. Semi-static acute toxicity test with Compound 33A and the zebra fish Brachydanio rerio. TNO report V98.1319. University of Wisconsin-Superior, 1984. Acute Toxicities of Organic Chemicals to Fathead Minnows (Pimephales promelas). Center for Lake Superior Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin-Superior.

 

Veith, G.D., Call, D.J., and Brooke, L.T., 1983a. Estimating the acute toxicity of narcotic chemicals to fathead minnows. In: Bishop, W.E., Cardwell, R.D., and Heidolph, B.B. (eds.). Aquatic Toxicology and Hazard Assessment: Sixth Symposium. ASTM STP 802. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia.

 

Veith, G.D., Call, D.J., and Brooke, L.T., 1983b. Structure-toxicity relationships for the fathead minnow, Pimephales promelas: Narcotic industrial chemicals. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 40:743-748.

 

Wildlife International, 2015b. Decanol: A static-renewal fish embryo acute toxicity (FET) test with the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) Final Report; Wildlife International Project Number: 774A-101; OECD Guideline 236.